Opera at the Russian Imperial court in Saint Petersburg

Cecilia Bartoli at the concert promotion in Versailles

Italian mezzosoprano Cecilia Bartoli is famous as an interpreter of Baroque music, but also as a very curious artist who explores forgotten repertoire of different eras. On one of her compact discs we have the chance to discover the whole new world of Italian opera, created by very skilled masters who lived and worked in Imperial Russia. Her CD "Saint Petersburg", released in 2014, features the world premiere of arias from operas by predominantly Italian composers who traveled to Russia during the 18th century to serve the imperial family there.

As a vocal artist, Cecilia Bartoli is known to be particularly dedicated to discovering long-forgotten music, which resulted in the performance and recording of works that had hitherto been neglected. Thus, in 1999, she bravely stepped out with a compact disc containing Vivaldi's opera arias, with which she showed the musical world that the composer's oeuvre contains not only instrumental works. This was followed by releasing recordings of music written specifically for the great opera diva Maria Malibran. We were also was able to learn more about the art of castrati through Cecilia's disc "Sacrificium", where she interpreted extremely demanding arias. Her curiosity also led to another interesting recording, featuring the work of Agostino Stefani, a priest and composer from the 18th century.

Cecilia Bartoli

As for the album "Saint Petersburg", Cecilia Bartoli recorded arias from the operas of several Italian and two German composers - Francesco Araia, Domenico Cimarosa, Vincenzo Manfredini, Domenico Dal'Oglio, Luigi Madonis, Johann Adolf Hasse and Hermann Raupach. Apart from Cimarosa and Hasse, key figures in the development of 18th-century Italian opera seria und opera buffa, other names are far less well known in the musical world today. Cecilia made them famous with this album and made the audience far more interested in musical life in Imperial Russia.

Francesco Araia

When opera arrived in Russia in 1731 it was on a special occasion - King of Poland August II ceded his Italian opera company to Russian Empress Anna for the purpose of celebrating her coronation in Moscow. The first opera performance in Saint Petersburg took place in 1735. It was an opera by Francesco Araia La forza dell'amore e dell'odio.

Francesco Araia was born in 1709 and went to school in Naples. Before leaving for Russia, he wrote operas for theaters in Naples, Florence, Rome, Milan and Venice. Araia spent 25 years in St. Petersburg at the position of maestro di cappella in the service of the Russian Empresses Anna Ivanovna and Elizabeth Petrovna. He was the first composer to write an opera on a Russian libretto. 

During the reign of three Russian Empresses - Anna Ivanovna, Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine the Great - Russian art, literature and education flourished. St. Petersburg became one of the world's most beautiful capitals and an extremely attractive center for the development of music. Schools and academies were established all over the country. During the reign of Empress Elizabeth the first Russian university opened. They invested in architecture and painting. Empress Catherine the Great founded now famous Hermitage Museum. The art of ballet also flourished and a number of foreign musicians were brought in to the Imperial court. With their music they paved the way for the development of the Russian national school in the 19th century.

The main staircase in Winter Palace

One would certainly ask a question about why did the Italian composers come to Russia? How is it possible that they decided to go so far as Russia to get a job? Musicologists point out that in the 18th century there was a real hyper production of opera composers in Italy and they were forced to seek positions throughout Europe. The conditions in Russia were particularly favorable in that domain, because members of the nobility and members of the Russian imperial family generously rewarded their musicians. Opera performances have been put on stage for significant events such as birthdays for members of the imperial family or for coronation festivities. A lavish life in the court was a common occurrence at the time, which can be read from the biographies of the Empress who hired composers from abroad. Usually uninterested in foreign policy and diplomacy, Russian Empresses devoted themselves to a leisurely life filled with entertainment, balls, watching French comedies and Italian operas, enjoying ballet or hunting.

Domenico Cimarosa (1749-1801)

To all afacionados of Italian comic opera the name of Domenico Cimarosa is certainly well known. He was an Italian composer who belonged to the Neapolitan opera school. He wrote more than eighty operas, the most famous of which is Il matrimonio segreto. In addition to staging operatic works in Italian cities, Cimarosa worked at the courts of Catherine the Great in St. Petersburg and Leopold II in Vienna. His operas have been performed in many European cities and he was indeed very popular during his lifetime. Like many other Italian composers, he also found himself in the Russian imperial court, where he resided between 1787 and 1791. A fine example of a virtuoso aria can be found on Bartoli's CD - it is Agitata da tante pene. In addition to the violin, there is also a clarinet as a obbligato instrument that accompanies the voice.

How did Cecilia Bartoli come up with the idea to explore this forgotten repertoire? Like many other students of music, Cecilia says, she was taught that the history of Russian opera began with Glinka's work Ivan Susanin, premiered in 1836. Even musicologists who deal with the subject of Russian music history of the time claim that they themselves, during their education, knew little about these composers in the Russian Imperial court. As she became more deeply involved in the study of Italian Baroque music during her singing career, Cecilia repeatedly came across information about composers who spent time at the court in St. Petersburg during the Enlightenment era. She wondered why they went there so much and found out that the Russian emperors had invited them to their court as instrumentalists and composers. For Cecilia that was enough to spakr her interest in that repertoire, but it turned out that it was not easy to get the opportunity and permission to visit the archives in Russia. After several attempts and with the mediation of maestro Valery Gergiev, conductor and artistic director of the Mariinsky Theater, Cecilia was able to see these manuscripts and, as she says, to discover true musical treasure. 

Summer Garden in Saint Petersburg

Cecilia Bartol's CD "Saint Petersburg" contains several arias written by a German composer and harpsichordist Hermann Raupach. He was born in 1728 and studied music with his father Christoph, who was an organist. This musician spent almost two decades in Russia as a composer at the Imperial court and later as a teacher of composition and singing at the Academy of Fine Arts, which was founded in 1758 under the patronage of Empress Elizabeth. Raupach will be remembered in Russian music history as the author of the second opera written on a Russian libretto. 

The Russian Empresses were generous patrons of the arts, literature and education. Lavishly staged operatic performances that brought together an international performing team were a means of showcasing the wealth and power of the Russian Empire. The operas that were staged at the Winter Palace and in the Summer Garden, depending on the season, were performed by Italian singers, set and stage designers. There were German instrumentalists in the orchestra and an ensemble of Russian dancers, along with some of them from France. The audience consisted of members of the Russian nobility and representatives of foreign diplomacy, so the opera was a kind of artistic extension of Russian foreign policy at the time, which focused on portraying the empire as one that could be measured against those at the West.

Another Italian composer who worked in St. Petersburg for a while was Vincenzo Manfredini, composer and harpsichordist, son of Francesco Manfredini, a Baroque composer and violinist. He embarked on the journey to Imperial Russia in 1758 with his brother Giuseppe, a castrato who was a member of an Italian opera troupe. Vincenzo was first appointed maestro di cappella and soon afterwards appointed as the leader of the opera troupe. After he was replaced by Baldassare Galluppi, Vincenzo was tasked with writing ballets and teaching the heir to the throne in playing the harpsichord.

With presenting this CD we did not exhaust all the stories about Italian composers who lived and worked at the Russian Imperial court. There were other composers who were really skilled masters who left a great mark on Russian music history.

Aria di furore - how to be furious in an opera

The form of a baroque opera was based on numbers - recitatvies and arias. There were far less duets and choral episodes. European opera houses were dominated by singers - castrati and primadonnas. They had such an influence that they could determined the number of arias per act. The roles were written for specific singers, so the composers knew exactly the advantages and disadvantages of their voices. Each baroque opera seria had arias of different character - written in a slow tempo and sad in character or in a faster tempo and full of coloraturas. What the Baroque inherited from the Renaissance was the tonal painting of individual words, expressions, natural phenomena or hero's feelings, which made the music very striking and suggestive.

The specific musical style of arias in Baroque operas was tied to the theory of affects (Affektenlehre), according to which the basic task of music is to provoke feelings. The foundations of this aesthetic theory were developed by ancient philosophers (Plato, Aristotle), claiming that certain modes provoke determinations of the state of the human spirit, and then were taken over by music theorists and therefore composers. There are four basic types of affect - sadness, joy, love and hate. If we are to express joy, then music should be written in a faster tempo, with melodies that have interval jumps and we should predominantly use consonant intervals. On the other hand, a composer would have to use slow tempo, gradual movement of melody, chromaticism and dissonance to capture sad feelings. We can find this kind of tonal painting in Renaissance madrigals, but also in Baroque operas where arias were a convenient place to express feelings of the main protagonists.

Among different types of arias, the rage aria was certainly the most interesting one because of its emotional charge and virtuosity. It is known by different names - aria di strepito, aria di furore, aria agitata or aria infuriata. They can be found in opera seria. These arias are short, written in a faster tempo and abound in technically demanding coloraturas. One such aria is in the score of "Julius Caesar in Egypt", an opera written by Georg Friedrich Händel, when the protagonist learns that Tolomeo cruelly beheaded Pompey. Tempo allegro, minor mode and a melody full of fast passages and arpeggios express Caesar's anger in the aria Empio dirò tu sei.

Jealousy or betrayal can really provoke strong feelings in a person and Baroque operas are full of arias in which heroes speak of the anger that overwhelms them because of their disappointments in love. The main protagonist of Händel opera "Xerxes" learns that the woman he loves is marrying his brother and the avalanche of his feelings is expressed in the aria Crude furie degl'orridi abissi. The intensity of the anger is felt in the extravagant coloraturas, punctuated rhythm and exciting orchestral accompaniment. Like many others, this aria is in da capo form, so widespread in Baroque times. When recapitulating the first part of the aria, the singer has the ability to decorate the melody and thus further emphasize the feeling that overwhelms him or her.

The Baroque tradition of writing arias of rage continued to be used in the era of classicism. In Mozart's oeuvre we find two striking examples of this type of vocal art. Everyone knows the aria Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen from the opera "The Magic Flute", in which the Queen of the Night, overwhelmed by hellish anger, threatens her daughter Pamina that she will give up on her unless she kills Sarastro. The melodic line is almost constantly in the higher register of the soprano. This aria also requires incredible precision and purity of intonation from the singer, including those famous high notes, available only to a small number of coloratura sopranos.

The first singer to perform this difficult aria was Josefa Hofer, sister of Mozart's wife Constanze, known for her agile voice and excellent high notes. Being well versed in her vocal abilities, Mozart wrote two arias for Queen of the Night, that are now so popular in the opera world. When she hears that her beloved Idamante becomes king and takes Ilia as his wife, desperate Elettra is distracted by her anger and wishes for her death, because she does not want to watch her beloved in the arms of her rival. Her aria D'Oreste, d'Ajace is found in Mozart's opera "Idomeneo". The role was intended for a German soprano Elisabeth Wendling, who grew up in a musical family.

Catalog arias in comic operas

The catalog aria (ital. aria di catalogo) is one of the most characteristic forms in Italian comic opera. It was very popular in the second half of the 18th and at the beginning of the 19th century. It is usually entrusted to a comic bass (ital. basso buffo), a type of deep male voice typical of this operatic genre. In the catalog aria, the singer lists certain persons, places or objects as if he was reading it from a catalog. Poetically, the texts are always full of words or sentences that are written without conjunctions. This adds a special rhythmical quality to a particular statement and creates an effect of accumulation or gradation. From a musical point of view, catalog arias are recognizable for their extremely humorous tone and swift declamation.

The most famous example of the catalog aria is Madamina, il catalogo è questo from Mozart's opera "Don Giovanni". The servant Leporello is telling Dona Elvira that his master Don Giovanni has been successful in seducing women from many countries. In addition, he describes what kind of women they were - beautiful or ugly, tall or short, big or small, blonde or brown. He didn't even make choice, he seduced them all. 

This is a two-part - in the first part, after the introduction, Leporello recites the places in which his master conquered women; this affects the fast pace of the performance and many notes sung in a syllabic way; in the second part there is a change - the tempo is now slower, the melody is more song-like and the rhythm has a dance-like character; here the text brings information about Dom Giovanni's the taste in women. During this time, Donna Elvira listens in disbelief, on the verge of her nerves.

In Italia seicento e quaranta;

In Alemagna duecento e trentuna;

Cento in Francia, in Turchia novantuna;

Ma in Ispagna son già mille e tre.

...

Nella bionda egli ha l'usanza

Di lodar la gentilezza,

Nella bruna la costanza,

Nella bianca la dolcezza.

We can often hear this aria on concerts as it is very entertaining for the audience and effective for the performer.

Just a few months before the premiere of Mozart's opera, there was another significant preimere, but in Italy. On February 5th 1787, the one-act opera "Don Giovanni Tenorio" by the Italian composer Giuseppe Gazzaniga was presented to the audience. The piece is considered to be a direct precursor to Mozart's "Don Giovanni". Gazzaniga studied music at the Naples Conservatory of Music, where his professors were Niccolò Piccini and Niccola Porpora. He has written about fifty operas and is considered one of the last representatives of Italian comic opera.

Giuseppe Gazzaniga (1743-1818)

In his version of the story about this notorious lover, there is also an aria in which Don Giovanni's servant, here called Pasquariello, recounts successes of his master to Donna Elvira. Here, too, the countries in which Don Giovanni seduced women of different physical appearance and social status are comically enumerated.

Dell'Italia, ed Alemagna

ve ne ho scritte cento, e tante.

Della Francia, e della Spagna

ve ne sono non so quante...

He didn't care about what they were like or what social class they belonged to - it was enough that they were females and he was ready to conquer them.

...fra madame, cittadine,

artigiane, contadine,

cameriere, cuoche, e sguattere;

perché basta che sian femmine

per doverle amoreggiar.

Don Giovanni's insatiability is similarly described in Mozart's opera - it doesn't matter whether they were rich or poor, beautiful or ugly, if they wear a skirt, one knows what a great womanizer like Don Giovanni is doing to them.

A real masterpiece in this genre can be found in the score of Rossini's opera "Il viaggio a Reims", which premiered in Paris in 1825. Some of the greatest opera stars of the time participated, like Giuditta Pasta. Written on the occasion of the coronation of King Charles X of France, the opera tells a story about European aristocrats, officers and a poet who have embarked on a journey to take part in the celebrations. In the second act of the opera, comic bass Don Profondo sings an aria Medaglie incomparabili, in which he jokingly lists all the valuables that his friends from different countries have.

A very nice example of a catalog aria can be heard in Haydn's opera "Orlando Paladino". It premiered in 1782 and it was written for the theatre built at the estate of Esterhazy family. Pasquale, a noble, traveled a great deal and he sings about it in his aria Ho viaggiato in Francia, in Spagnia.

Enumeration as a comic feature can also appear as a passage in individual arias. The most famous example is the aria of Dulcamara Udite, uditi, rustici from the opera "Don Pasquale" by Gaetano Donizetti. He comes to the village where the love story between Adina and Nemorino takes place, presenting himself as a successful doctor who treats his patients with his miraculous remedies.

In Donizetti's one-act opera "Il Campanello", which premiered in Naples in 1836, Enrico wants to prevent Don Anibale, an old apothecary, from spending his first wedding night with his young wife Serafina. In an attempt to regain her affection, Enrico returns several time to the pharmacist's home seeking medical attention. During one of the visits, Enrico comes disguised as a blind man who begs for help for his sick wife. Listing as a feature of catalog arias is intended to create a comical effect through exaggeration, so in the text of this duet we read that Enrico's alleged wife is very ill - besides being blind and paralyzed, she suffers from a migraine, asthma, sciatica and more.

Mendelssohn's journeys - Italy

"My parents have no doubt told you what impressions I had when I saw Italy for the first time. I go from one pleasure to another, spending hours constantly learning something new and fresh. Immediately after I arrived, I discovered certain masterpieces that I study with great care and then think about them for several hours a day."

These words Felix Mendelssohn wrote to his professor Zelter in a letter dated October 16, 1830. At that time he was already traveling extensively through Europe, visiting the most significant centers of art and culture. At the suggestion of Goethe, who was a friend of the family, Felix's parents sent him to a three-year trip to Europe, which at that time was almost mandatory for all members of the upper class. Spending several months abroad were aimed at introducing young people to the culture and history of other countries. The most important destination on these tours was Italy. Felix spent time away from home between 1829 and 1831. He first visited England and then Italy, where he stayed in Rome, Florence, Milan and Naples. Thanks to these trips, some of his most beautiful works were composed and the artist himself was able to expand his perspectives and make good contacts in the art world.

Felix Mendelssohn was born in 1809 in Hamburg. The members of his family were very fond of music and art in general. His grandfather was the famous philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, his father Abraham had a refined taste in literature and his mother was very well educated. Felix apparently grew up in a favorable intellectual environment. Along with his very talented older sister Fanny, he had been learning music from a young age. Salons at their home in Berlin were frequented by prominent artists of the time. Felix was considered a child prodigy. At only seventeen, he wrote the Overture for Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream, which is considered to be a true masterpiece.

"I feel I have completely changed since I came here. What is it that makes me feel good so much, I cannot define precisely. In any case, I'm different than I was before. My health is better and I'm happier, I gladly commit myself to composing , so I expect to achieve much more than I expected. When I get into my room early in the morning and see the sun shining brightly on my desk, I feel so comfortable and satisfied. It is late autumn now and I really wonder who would in our country expect warm weather, clear skies, grapes and flowers in that season ? After breakfast, I start working, playing, singing and composing until almost noon. After that I choose different historical monuments that I would like to visit that day. Sometimes I go to see the remains from ancient times, other times I go to the Borghese Gallery, St. Peter's Church or the Vatican. So every day is really worthy of remembering, and as time goes on, all those objects that I see are more and more engraved into my memory."

These words, quoted from Felix's letter, full of cheerfulness and enthusiasm, was addressed to his sister Fanny. It confirms that longer stays in Italy have greatly contributed to the improvement of his overall physical and spiritual well-being. In addition, Italy was obviously a truly inspiring place for him to create music, so he began writing his Fourth Symphony in A Major, which is known as the Italian. "It will be the most fun composition I've ever written." - said Felix to his sister Fanny. This was true and it can be heard in the first and the last movements of the symphony. 

Handel in Italy

Italy - the place to be

At the beginning of the 18th century, Italy was a popular destination for educated people and art lovers. Italy was the land of belcanto, a place where opera, oratorio and chamber cantata were born. It was the home of instrumental virtuosity, great violin masters, a place where composers created some of the most significant instrumental forms, such as solo concerto and sonata. Every musician who wanted to develop its creative potentials went to study in Italy or copied the works of great Italian masters. Let's not forget great Bach himself copied Vivaldi's concertos. Young and talented Georg Friedrich Hӓndel decided to shape his personal style in a country that had several prestigious music centers - Rome, Florence, Milan, Venice and Naples. This proved to be very important for him as a composer.

Hӓndel discovered his individual style as being a synthesis of German and Italian elements. Thanks to the support of wealthy nobles and church dignitaries in Italy, he was able to write a large number of works, in which he honed his craft as a composer and prepared himself for composing operas and oratorios without which we cannot imagine the world of classical music today. 

George Friedrich Händel (1685-1759)

Caro Sassone

Although Hӓndel's father wanted his son to be a lawyer, young musician showed exceptional talent from a young age and therefore greater interest in the arts. Seeing that young Georg possessed extraordinary potential, his father allowed him to study composition and music theory with Friedrich Wilhelm Zachau, a church organist in his native Halle. In addition, Hӓndel learned to play several instruments, such as harpsichord, organ, violin and oboe. Although he started studying law in Halle, Hӓndel also received a position as a church organist and soon decided to devote himself completely to music. In 1703 he went to Hamburg where he began working as a violinist at the opera house. Having already made contacts with the Medici family, he then headed to Italy at the end of 1706, where he would soon become a well-educated and confident master of almost every genre. 

Hӓndel's popularity in Italy is evidenced by the fact that at the very end of that three-year period, before his departure to England, his opera Agrippina was successfully presented to Italian audience. On that occasion a flattering sentence echoed within the walls of the theater - "Viva il caro Sassone!". The opera premiered at the San Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice and after the premiere it run for 27 nights in a row. 

Meeting other musicians

Hӓndel met some of the most prominent representatives of Italian baroque, such as Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti, Archangelo Corelli, Antonio Vivaldi and Tommaso Albinoni. While working in Italy, he earned considerable reputation as an organist and harpsichordist. According to an anecdote, there was a contest between a Hӓndel and Domenico Scarlatti. The conclusion was that they were both equally skilled as harpsichordists, but Hӓndel was a superior organ performer. Notwithstanding this little musical duel, the two artists have developed a deep respect for each other. 

Handel and the Roman Cardinals

Hӓndel spent most of his time in Rome composing sacred and secular music commissioned by high-ranking church dignitaries. During winter months and carnivals, he went to major Italian opera centers - Venice and Florence. Thanks to his excellent performing skills, Hӓndel drew the attention of prominent figures in the high social circles of Rome and acquired loyal patrons who commissioned sacred and secular works from him. Cardinals Benedetto Pamphili, Pietro Ottoboni and Carlo Colona were all Hӓndel's patrons.

Cardinal Pamphili was particularly fond of music. He wrote libretti for operas and helped other composers. Famous baroque artists such as Archangelo Corelli, Alessandro Melani or Carlo Francesco Cesarini developed their careers thanks to this great patron of the arts. A special friendship developed between him and Hӓndel. German composer dedicated several cantatas to his patron, as well as the oratorio Il Trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno.

Cardinal Ottoboni was one of the greatest patrons of his time. His protégés included the greats of the Italian Baroque - Archangelo Corelli, Alesandro Scarlatti, Antonio Caldara and Antonio Vivaldi. On Monday, he hosted concerts (the so-called academies) at his residence. In addition to musicians, Ottoboni helped artists from other fields, such as the architect Giovanni Battista Vaccharini or painters Sebastiano Conca and Francesco Trevisani.

At that time, operatic performances were banned in Rome, so composers turned to sacred and secular works, in which, quite interestingly, they made extensive use of typical operatic manners. Not only were the vocal writing and expression in the spirit of belcanto, but those compositions were sumptuously staged as if they were dramatic works. A good example of a distinctly virtuoso operatic style applied to the genre of sacred music can be seen in the aria Disserratevi, o porte d'Averno from Hӓndel's oratorio The Resurrection. This work was commissioned by Marquis Francesco Maria Ruspoli. It was performed in a magnificent staging in Ruspoli's home in 1708. He was one of the most important patrons in Rome and it was he who was responsible for the creation and performance of most of the composer's works from that period.

Marquis Ruspoli and Accademia degli Arcadi

In addition to affluent cardinals who were inclined to music, Hӓndel found support for his work in Marquis Francesco Maria Ruspoli. He formed part of a society Accademia degli Arcadi which brought together nobles, church dignitaries, writers and musicians. During regular weekly meetings, known as conversazioni, where they would discuss various topics, concerts were also held. Many of Hӓndel 's works were performed during those meetings. Numerous chamber cantatas for one or more voices with instrumental accompaniment were composed for such occasions. Among the members of this society was the noblewoman Aurora Sanseverino, who remained known in history as a great patron of the arts and an organizer of the salon at her home in Naples. Hӓndel composed the serenade Aci, Galatea, and Polifemo after her commission.

This period in Hӓndel's life was obviously very important, since he could perfect his style writing music for his patrons. This is how he prepared for future engagements in England. Even in his later works he "recycled" some of his music written during his stay in Italy.  

Women in music - Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel

Women as musicians were always present but did not have the opportunity to prove themselves to the same extent as their male colleagues. In the past, these were most often women who belonged to nobility or were born into a musical family. One of the most famous pianists of the Romantic era was Fanny Mendelssohn, sister of the well-known Felix, an artist who grew up in an extremely stimulating environment. Thanks to her husband's understanding, she was able to cultivate her musicality even after her marriage, although she was not able to conquer concert stages across Europe, such as her brother or other artists of the time.

Music education

Fanny was born on 14th of November 1805 in Hamburg to a wealthy Jewish family. Along with her brothers and sisters Felix, Rebecca and Paul, she received an excellent general and music education. As parents recognized their children's musical gift, they provided them with lessons in piano and music theory. Fanny and Felix studied piano with Ludwig Berger and music theory and composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter. For a few months in 1816, while in Paris, they received piano lessons from Marie Bigot, a renowned pianist who was especially appreciated by Beethoven and Haydn.

Given that the European intellectual elite gathered in the home of the Mendelssohn's in Berlin, no doubt it can be concluded that Fanny and Felix have been moving in a privileged artistic circles since they were young. This fact have certainly contributed to their overall education.

Since she studied with some of the most prominent teachers in Berlin, Fanny received an outstanding music education. She could display her talents as a performer and composer only in the narrow circle of her family and their friends or acquaintances. In a book written after her untimely death, music critic Ludwig Rellstab noted that she was just as talented as her famous brother and had reached a level of music education that only a handful of artists who dedicated their lives to music could achieve. 

Music soirees 

Although Fanny encountered many limitations in life, her desire to create music still came to fruition during concerts held at the homes of the Mendelssohn and Hensel family.

Her works were presented to a select audience during music events held every other week at the Mendelssohn home. These concerts named Sonntagsmusiken were established in the early 1820s and for these occasions Abraham Mendelssohn hired musicians to play every other Sunday from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. Felix and Fanny also performed at these concerts. When Felix embarked on his first major trip to England, which favorably affected his career, the weekly concerts were suspended.

In the spring of 1831, Fanny restored that family tradition, but now within the framework of her home with the support of her husband Wilhelm Hensel. These famous music gatherings, according to Rellstab's testimony, were a small music festival where the works of composers of the past and present were performed. The enjoyment was guaranteed because during these concerts the best Berlin musicians played.

Fanny received an outstanding music education from the most prominent Berlin pedagogues, but she could display her talent only within family circles. In a book written after her untimely death, music critic Ludwig Rellstab noted that she was just as talented as her famous brother. He also said that she had reached a level of music education that was available only to a handful of artists who dedicated their lives to music.

Fanny's reputation among musicians

From 1839 to 1840, Fanny traveled with her husband through Italy and it was one of the most beautiful periods of her life. She finally received recognition for her work outside family circles and was able to meet various musicians who were highly opinionated about her works. Rellstab's words that speak of Fanny's talent and good music education are further corroborated by the following words written by Charles Gounod:

"Mrs. Hensel was a very knowledgeable musician and played the piano very well. Despite being small, she was a woman of excellent intellect and full of energy, 

which could be seen in her fiery eyes. "

Fanny's opus

As her creativity could only be expressed in family circles, much of her work encompasses genres such as piano pieces and solo songs, though there were also chamber works and even larger vocal and instrumental works. The concerts held at her house eventually grew into notable cultural events and were attended by well-known people such as the Humboldt brothers, Franz Liszt, Clara Schumann, Heinrich Heine and others. Fanny then assembled an orchestra and a choir and organized performances of oratorios, opera arias and chamber music written by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber and Mendelssohn. It was then when the opportunity appeared to compose more complex genres that needed more performers. According to Rellstab, these concerts at the Hensel's enriched Berlin's musical life and represented the way in which Fanny could deal with the limitations she had to accept as a woman. 

Fanny's works in print

Fanny's father Abraham wanted his daughter to concentrate on her future role of a wife and a mother, so public concerts and the publication of her works were out of the question, although he was aware of her talent. However, in 1827 and 1830, she nevertheless published five songs and a duet with a piano accompaniment under Felix's name. The systematic publication of her compositions began only in the last year of her short life. She was assisted in this by her family friend and in 1846 her compositions for piano and choir were printed under opus numbers from one to seven. Several other works by Fanny at the request of her husband Wilhelm Hensel were published posthumously by her brother Felix in 1850. Printing of this artist's complete oeuvre occurred only in the 1980s. 

Maria Malibran

The famous opera diva of the Romantic era - Maria Malibran - was born on March 24th 1808 into a musical family. Her parents, father Manuel and mother Joaquina, brother Manuel and sister Pauline were professional musicians. Not only that, all the members of this family members were - singers. They left a significant mark in the history of music, especially in the fields of opera and vocal pedagogy. Maria has sung in operas that are now an integral part of the repertoire of famous opera houses around the world. Her voice type which could be described as coloratura contralto is very rare nowadays. Some of the roles she introduced are now being sung by sopranos or mezzos.

Maria Malibran and Gioacchino Rossini

Maria Malibran's name is largely associated with roles in Rossini's operas, such as Otello, Tancredi, Il Turco in Italia, Il Barbiere di Siviglia, La Cenerentola and Semiramide. Many composers admired her extraordinary talent, beauty, acting skills and education. This is how Rossini described her:

"Her superior intelligence, breadth of knowledge and unimaginably fiery temper made her overshadow every other woman I knew."

Maria Malibran and Vincenzo Bellini

Besides performing roles in Rossini's operas, Maria Malibran often sung in the operas of Vincenzo Bellini. She performed the role of Romeo in I Capuletti e i Montecchi, the role of Amina in La Sonnambula, the title role in Bellini's Norma, as well as the role of Elvira in the opera I Puritani.

Among the admirers of Maria Malibran were some of the greatest composers of Romanticism, such as Chopin, Mendelssohn, Liszt. Vincenzo Bellini met Malibran in the spring of 1833 in London, when she performed with great success the role of Amina in his opera La Sonnambula. In a letter he sent to his colleague, Bellini revealed how fascinated he was with her enormous talent and Maria herself showed a keen interest and affection for his music, which meant much to him as a composer.

Voice and appearance

Her voice was agile, it spanned almost three octaves. Based on the variety of ornaments, intricate cadenzas, fiorituras and trills she herself wrote in the scores, it is easy to conclude that she could sing like a true virtuoso could perform on an instrument, like the violin or the flute However, what distinguished Maria Malibran as an artist was that she was able to use her purely technical vocal abilities as a means of expression. In addition, she was talented as an actress and proved to be both good as a comedian and as a tragedian, which certainly made her a complete artist. A French music critic writes about it:

"Malibran's voice is sonorous, full of brilliance and strength, it has that velvety quality that gave a special color to her interpretations of gentle and passionate arias. She possessed all the art of singing demanded - vivacity, precision, flexibility and ease of execution of various fiorituras and ornaments, adding to it strength, grace or flirtation when needed."

Considering she had an extraordinary voice range, ranging from the deep note of a contralto to the highest notes of a coloratura soprano, Maria Malibran sang equally well roles written for a variety of female voices. Such opera singers belong to a special type of female voice called soprano sfogato. These were deep female voices who had good lower register and a dark color, but could easily sing in the high register of a soprano, reaching even the highest notes of a coloratura soprano. Such singers were indeed very rare in the history of music. Apart from Maria Malibran, other female artists like Giuditta Pasta, Isabella Colbran or Giuseppina Strepponi had that kind of a voice. Music experts believe that Maria Callas was a worthy representative of this unique voice type.

Operatic career

After her operatic debut in London, when she as an 18 year old girl sang the role of Rosina in The Barber of Seville, Maria Malibran stayed with her family for about two years in America, where she delighted audiences in New York with her performances. During those years, the Garcia family was in fact the first to introduce Italian opera in America, performing works by themselves. That was not difficult given that the whole family was professionally engaged in singing. The first opera they performed was Rossini's The Barber of Seville in November 1825. Father Manuel sang the role of Count Almaviva, his wife interpreted Berta, their son Manuel was Figaro, while Maria sang Rosina.

At the end of 1827 Maria returned to Europe in order to develop her career. She achieved tremendous success in her native Paris, where she was celebrated as the most popular prima donna of the French capital. Many prominent artists such as Stendhal, Lamartine, Georges Sand, Liszt, Rossini and Chopin praised her. She also performed successfully in London, where she met Bellini. Maria was very much loved in Italy, where she also repeatedly delighted the audience. We can only imagine how an extraordinary artist would she have become if she had not fell off a horse in 1836. Although she suffered serious injuries on that unfortunate occasion, Maria refused to visit a doctor and continued to perform tirelessly until she passed away a few months later at the age of 28.

Pauline Viardot

The García family

Pauline Viardot was the youngest child of Manuel and Joaquina García. She was born on July 18th, 1821 in Paris. Pauline's father Manuel García was an accomplished tenor and influential vocal pedagogue. He was one of Rossini's favorite singers. He wrote the role of Count Almaviva from The Barber of Seville for Manuel. Pauline's mother Joaquina was also a singer. Her brother Manuel Garcia invented the laryngoscope, an instrument that enables the examination of vocal cords. Although all of the children from the García family were musically gifted, the best of them was Pauline's older sister Maria, a true diva of the 19th century who captivated audiences with her voice, beauty and stage presence.

In addition to growing up in such an incredible environment, with parents and siblings more or less talented for music, young Pauline witnessed her family meet and discuss with the best artists of the 19th century. Given that her father had friendly relations with some of the leading musicians of the time, it is not a surprise his children easily entered opera and concert stages, which was of course preceded by an excellent education with optimal conditions for the development of musical abilities.

Pauline's talents

Pauline Viardot was a well-known opera singer whose career spanned more than two decades. When she retired from the stage, Pauline devoted herself to vocal pedagogy and composing. She also regularly organized music salons in her home, where some of the greatest composers of the Romantic era gathered. In addition to her lavish voice and expressive acting, Pauline was also fluent in Spanish, French, Italian, German and Russian. Her self-portraits show her as a gifted painter. It is a well-known fact that she read poetry with great passion, which in turn led her to compose numerous songs for voice and piano. She used poems of contemporary poets. Since she could communicate in different languages, there are songs  written on Russian, German, Spanish, French or Italian texts in her oeuvre.

Music education

Pauline possessed a strong intellect, a personality eager for knowledge and of course exceptional musical ability. By the time she was eight, Pauline was so skillful as a pianist that she could accompany her father's students in his singing studio. For a while, her piano teacher was no less than the famous Franc Liszt, a great virtuoso who aroused audiences across Europe. Pauline was actually a great pianist, many artists praised her as a piano performer. Her first appearance on the concert stage was as a piano collaborator. However, when her father died, Pauline devoted herself to singing at her mother's urging, even though she actually wanted to be a professional pianist. In addition to piano and singing, Pauline also studied composition with Anton Reicha, professor at the Paris Conservatory. This comprehensive musical education enabled her to compose vocal and instrumental works after she retired as an opera singer. 

Pauline Viardot and Frédéric Chopin

Pauline Viardot's friendship with Frédéric Chopin was very intimate, imbued with mutual respect. She met him at George Sand's summer residence in Nohant, where Chopin spent most of the year composing. During summer months, many prominent artists of the time came to the house, such as Franz Liszt, Eugene Delacroix, Gustave Flaubert and Honoré de Balzac. Chopin wrote some of his best compositions there.

Viardot and Chopin often spent their time together around the piano, giving each other advice on music. Pauline could hear something useful and constructive from Chopin considering her compositions and the Polish pianist could learn more about Spanish music and singing from her. Chopin was deeply interested in belcanto, an art which inspired him greatly. At Chopin's funeral in October 1849, Pauline Viardot participated in the performance of Mozart's Requiem. From a letter sent to George Sand one can see that she was very saddened by the news. Only after she heard about Chopin's death did she realize how much affection she had for him.

"He was a noble soul. I'm happy to have known him 

and to have been his friend, ” - said Pauline Viardot.

She really appreciated Chopin's piano compositions, so she made arrangements of these pieces for voice and piano. Vocal arrangements of instrumental compositions form a significant part of Pauline's oeuvre. Her arrangements of Chopin's piano miniatures are certainly the most famous and the most performed. Two collections containing six poems each, based on Chopin's Mazurkas, were printed in 1864 and 1865 respectively. They were even printed in other languages, Polish among others. 

In addition to her close friendship with Frédéric Chopin, which was filled with very warm mutual feelings, Viardot maintained contacts with many other artists of the time, often helping them make a career in music. 

Pauline's successes in opera

Pauline performed her first operatic role at the Queen's Theater in London in 1839. She sang the role of Desdemone in Rossini's Otello. She performed the same role again at the Théâtre Iatlien in her native Paris. Since then she begun to mount success in many opera houses in Europe. Although Pauline was warmly received in theaters in London and Germany, her popularity was particularly high in St. Petersburg, where she first appeared in 1843 on the stage of the Imperial Theater. An acquaintance and then a long-lasting friendship with Ivan Turgenev dates from this period. 

Pauline as a composer and pedagogue

Pauline never wanted to become a famous composer, but she wrote music primarily for her students. This doesn't mean her works had only an instructive value or that they were written to be performed during exams in music schools. On the contrary, her works have artistic value and are often extremely virtuosic. In addition to the well-known arrangements of Chopin's mazurkas, as well as compositions by other musicians, adapted for voice and piano, Pauline Viardot has also written original works, mostly vocal compositions, but her opus also contains choral and instrumental works, as well as five salon operas.

Music salons in the home of the Viardot family

During years Viardot family spent in Baden-Baden, after Pauline ended her operatic career, she devoted herself to composing and teaching. At the time, she also wrote short salon operas for her students. Her idea was to provide them with the opportunity to develop their singing and acting skills by participating in smaller opera productions, where they could be accompanied with a piano. For Pauline's three salon operas the libretto was written by the Russian poet Ivan Turgenev, a great friend of the Viardot's, while for the remaining two both music and lyrics were written by Pauline.

The Viardot family regularly invited distinguished guests to their home on Thursday evenings and Sunday afternoons. This part of Pauline's engagement was very important for young composers, since she was a patron of music and helped them establish their careers. She has helped many artists of French Romanticism, such as Charles Gounod, Jules Massenet, Camille Saint-Saëns and Gabriel Fauré. Of course, one of the best ways to promote a composer is to participate in performances of their works. Pauline created the title role in Gounod's opera Sapho. 

The musical evenings held on Thursday nights at their home were more formal. During those gatherings, the aforementioned composers were able to make important contacts and to have their works performed. That is how Pauline herself was introduced to the Parisian society as a very young girl, before making her debut on the concert and opera stage. On Sunday afternoons it was more fun and relaxing at the Viardot's, because only the closest friends gathered at their house. Opera parodies were performed and guests played an interesting game of portraits. It implied that each participant should draw a human character on paper and then, based on that drawing, they should describe in detail the physical and psychological characteristics of that person. 

Caterina Cavalieri

Caterina Cavalieri (1755-1801) was one of the best singers in Vienna at the time of Antonio Salieri and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. She was the first to interpret the role of Konstanze from the opera The Abduction from the Seraglio, as well as the role of Madame Silberklang in the singspiel The Impresario.

Antonio Salieri

Caterina Cavalieri and Antonio Salieri

She was born in 1755 as Katherina Magdalena Josepha Cavalier in Lichtenthal. Since her father Joseph Karl was a church musician, she received first music lessons in the family. One of the happiest circumstances that struck her as a young girl was meeting Antonio Salieri, one of the most esteemed teachers and composers of that time. She became his student and this gave her an excellent opportunity to develop her career in Vienna. Caterina's first appearances on the opera stage have earned her great acclaim. It helped the development of her career which lasted almost two decades. She made her debut in 1775 singing in La finta giardiniera by Pasquale Anfossi. This was followed by a role in Ignaz Umlauf's singspiel. Of particular note was the role of Nannette in Salieri's opera Der Rauchfangkehrer, which was written for Caterina.

Caterina Cavalieri as Nannette

While working in the service of the Imperial Theater, Caterina was among the best singers in the troupe, although she received less income than her Italian colleagues. She was obviously talented as an actress and a singer, but Caterina made progress thanks to Salieri. There was also another important fact. The period of her artistic activity coincided with the efforts of Emperor Joseph II to establish a national theater that would perform German operas. His wish was to create something that could compete with Italian opera. The aim of the Imperial Theater was to stage works of high quality in German language, because opera as a genre was seen as an efficient tool in the hands of those who cared about social policy. In spite of that, during this period composers produced works that went beyond the social circumstances of the time, so some of the operas are still performed today.

Cavalieri and Mozart

Caterina Cavalieri as an interpreter of Mozart's music

Caterina Cavalieri interpreted several great heroines from Mozart's operas. She premiered the role of Konstanze from The Abduction from the Seraglio and Madame Silberklang from The Impresario. When she was assigned Don Elvira at the Vienna premiere of Don Giovanni, Mozart wrote for her the aria Mi tradì quell'anima ingrata.

At that time, a Society of Musicians was active in Vienna. It organized concerts for its own purposes. This charity was intended to help musicians and their families. Leading composers of the time wrote for those occasions and also participated as performers. Such was the case with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Caterina Cavalieri. For one of the charity concerts, the composer wrote a cantata Davide penitente, borrowing music from one of his unfinished sacred works. He wrote the aria Tra l'oscure ombre funeste for Caterina, keeping in mind that she could easily sing beautiful and elegant melodies in legato, as well as coloraturas.

Caterina Cavalieri as Konstanze

Mozart's opera The Abduction from the Seraglio premiered in 1782 at the Burgtheater in Vienna under the auspices of the imperial project aimed at creating a national opera. Among the works prepared for these purposes, The Abduction from the Seraglio stands out as an opera which gained considerable success. The main roles were entrusted to members of a troupe formed for the national theater. Caterina Cavalieri sang the role of Konstanze. The role of Belmonte was given to a German tenor Valentin Adamberger, to whom Mozart also wrote some other compositions. Ludwig Fischer, a respected German bass and composer's friend, was hired to interpret the role of Osmin. The opera was a huge success at the premiere and it was often performed during Mozart's life. Today it is regularly staged in opera houses worldwide.

One of the most demanding arias for a coloratura soprano was written for Konstanze. It's her aria Martern aller Arten. The main features are the energetic singing in the middle register of the voice, against a strong orchestral accompaniment, as well as the coloraturas that cover the whole range of Caterina's voice. The average duration of this aria is about nine minutes. It requires vocal strength and dramatic intensity in all the registers, so a singer with a strong lyric voice is needed to perform it properly. Many coloraturas require a flexible voice that is able to perform virtuoso passages with ease. Nonetheless, the difficulty of this aria lies not so much in the coloraturas as in the endurance and strength of the singer. The tempo of this aria is fast, so the singer does not have much time to rest. The range of the aria spans more than two octaves, so a singer's voice should sound good both in its lower and higher registers.

Caterina Cavalieri began to withdraw from the operatic stage in 1790.

Mozart's journeys

"A smart man will get the best education by traveling." - these words by Goethe find their best endorsement in the life of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

The Mozart family: Leopold, Wolfgang and Maria Anna

Mozart traveled a lot during his short life. Only during his stay in Salzburg (and that was until his was 25), Wolfgang was on the road for about a third of the time. Like no other child of his age, Mozart had the opportunity to get to know the European music scene, composers and musical style of the time. However, these travels were not only significant for his musical creativity, but also played an important role in shaping his personality, primarily through appearances in front of European noble families. 

During his years in Vienna - from 1781 to 1791 - he did not travel as much. He lived in an artistic environment that shaped his personality and inspired him to compose. It should be remembered that he had a family back then, which was another reason for him to lead a more peaceful life. Thanks to these journeys, Mozart became what he ultimately was - a mature artistic personality. During those trips, he received orders for new compositions, got some valuable stimulus for further work and was inspired by the musical life of other cities, some of which were far more developed than his native Salzburg. Mozart learned a lot during those trips and he met not only a number of musicians, but also other celebrities of the time. All these experiences shaped his creativity and style.

There is no better way to understand the life and work of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart than to consider his travels around Europe. During his short life, Mozart visited ten European countries and more than two hundred cities. Whether small or big, they still contain the traces of a great composer. The planning and realization of these trips, from 1762 to 1773, were in the hands of his father Leopold. The main reasons for such trips at that time were education and further training, making contacts with other people, which in Mozart's case were musicians and music theorists. People would also travel in order to gain knowledge, exchange opinions and academic experiences. 

A brief overview of the countries and cities he visited will be viewed from the perspective of today's European countries, bearing in mind that some of them did not exist as such in Mozart's time.

Belgium and Switzerland

Mozart traveled through Belgium when he was on his the way to France during a grand family tour of Western Europe. They wanted to reach major cities like Paris and London. Switzerland was also the country through which Mozart traveled, returning from Paris to Salzburg in the fall of 1766.

Germany

Mozart traveled to Germany five times. He visited Munich three times and Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig and Frankfurt am Main once. During his big family tour of Western Europe, as well as his second trip to Paris, Mozart left his mark in seventy-three cities. He has been to Augsburg five times, the hometown of his father Leopold. He visited Mannheim four times, where he met among others some of the members of the court orchestra. Three trips took him to Schwetzingen and Mainz.

Karl Theodore

Mozart made a special connection with the Mannheim court, led by princes Karl Theodore and Maximilian III. It was a place where the young composer hoped to get a permanent placement, though it did not eventually happen. However, playing of the orchestra there and establishing connections with excellent musicians greatly influenced his work. The reason why music played such a great role in Mannheim was because the nobles at the head of the court were very fond of it. Prince Karl Theodore was famous in history not only as a great aficionado, but also as a patron of music. Mozart wrote his opera Idomeneo for him. Karl Theodore's wife was an educated musician, so Mozart dedicated six sonatas for piano and violin to her.

Maximilian III

Prince Maximilian III was the first nobleman to whom Leopold introduced his talented children. It happened in 1763 during their big family tour of Europe. Later Mozart wrote his opera La finta giardiniera for him. 

In Mannheim, Mozart also met Christian Cannabich, a violinist and composer who was employed as chief conductor of the court orchestra. That ensemble was considered one of the best in Europe. Along with other representatives of the so-called Mannheim school, Cannabich contributed to the development of the Classicism, which paved the way for great composers such as Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. He was born into a family of musicians. He owes his education to the best teachers of the time. Mozart was certainly very fortunate to have heard the music played by the Mannheim orchestra. Historian Charles Barney called this ensemble one of the most disciplined in Europe.

Christian Cannabich

(1731-1798)

France

Wolfgang at the Paris court

Mozart visited France two times, so Parisians saw him both as a child and later as a young man. During his first visit, he performed before King Louis XV and Madame Pompadour. He delighted the members of the court with his performances. That's when his compositions first appeared in print - it was his sonatas for violin and piano.

During his second stay in Paris, Mozart's mother died. It happened on July 3, 1778. Although he was not able to find a permanent job, Mozart wrote some of his best works - for example, famous Piano sonata in A minor and Paris Symphony.

England

During their big family tour, the Mozart's traveled from Salzburg via Germany and Belgium, with longer stays in Paris, to England. The family stayed in London for a total of fifteen months. Wolfgang and his sister Maria Anna gave concerts, including one at the royal court. In London, Mozart met Johann Christian Bach. This was the time when Mozart wrote his first symphonies.

Johann Christian Bach
(1735-1782)

Italy

Palaces with lush gardens, cheerful parties, music, architecture, painting - these were all synonymous with 18th century Italy. Mozart traveled with his father Leopold three times to that country. During their first visit, they stayed there from December 1769 to March 1771. Then they returned to Italy again and stayed from August to December 1771. Last time they went to Italy was in October 1772 and they stayed there until March next year.

Mozart visited a total of fifty-one cities, such as Rovereto, Verona, Padua, Milan, Cremona, Mantova, Rome and Naples. He would always remember the time spent there, because it was a country with great musical tradition. Italy brought so much to him - new acquaintances and knowledge. Its rich musical life helped him shape his taste in music. Among his most significant encounters was the one with a distinguished music theorist and composer Giovanni Battista Martini, who taught many prominent composers of the time. During his stay in Italy, Mozart composed his first string quartets and the so-called Milan operas - Ascanio in Alba, Mitridate re di Ponto and Lucio Silla.

Mozart also received high honors as a musician - in 1770 he became a member of the Accademia Filarmonica in Bologna and Pope Clement XIV named him a knight of the Order of the Golden Spur.

W. A. Mozart as the knight of the Order of the Golden Spur

Netherlands

Mozart and his family resided in the Netherlands from September 1765 to April 1766. They visited cities such as Utrecht, Amsterdam, Harlem and The Hague, where Wolfgang and his sister performed concerts. In The Hague, Maria Anna fell ill and then the same happened to Wolfgang. Thanks to Princess Carolina of Nassau, they were both taken care of by the court physician and successfully recovered from typhus. During this period Mozart composed twelve pieces, including two symphonies and Galimathias Musicum.

Czech Republic

In October 1767, due to the smallpox epidemic, the Mozart family left Vienna for the Czech Republic. During later trips, they visited seven cities. Prague played a very important role in the last years of Mozart's life. He achieved great success in that city as a composer of such masterpieces like Prague Symphony in D major or Don Giovanni. His opera The Marriage of Figaro was very popular with the Prague audience. Mozart was certainly very fond of Prague because of his friendship with the Duschek family. Franz Xsaver Duschek was a renowned pedagogue, composer and pianist. His wife Josephine was an opera singer for whom Mozart wrote several compositions, including the aria Bella fiamma addio.